Closing Remarks and Overall Summary

Closing Remarks: 
Epigenetics investigates changes in the phenotype of organisms without a change in the underlying genotype. DNA methylation and histone modification do not directly change the DNA's genetic code but do allow for heritable changes in gene expression. This allows animals to adapt to situations and environments in a more rapid manner than other evolutionary methods of improving traits through direct DNA modification. Epigenetics clearly affects behavior of animals and allows animals to rapidly adapt to their environment. 

Summary of the 9 types of epigenetic implications on behaviors and the relation of this mechanism to evolution:

1. Implications of neglectful mothering: Rat pup's phenotypic behavior was physically altered due to the environmental upbringing. This epigenetic effect was also proven to be reversible utilizing enzymes (Weaver et al., 2004).
2. Cocaine creates an epigenetic change in the genome: Increases a rats' behavioral yearning for a next dose. This is due to epigenetic suppression of a particular histone, and the suppression causes creation of extra dendritic spines (Miller, 2010).
3. Nearly 500 gene sequences are specific to humans for epigenetic modification: These epigenetic modifications specific to humans and not our ancestors could be the cause of our human-specific traits and behaviors. Much of our evolution may be thanks to epigenetics (Shula et al., 2012), (Zeng et al., 2012).
4. Twins Studies: Decisions individuals make will lead to epigenetic changes in their genome which impact future behaviors & the next generation: Epigenetics also causes silencing or expression of genes that could lead to cancer or disease susceptibility. Epigenetics thus is vital to understanding our behavior, behavior of cancerous cells, and evolution of these mechanisms which are all the result of our epigenetic tags (PBS.org, 2009).
   
5. Evolution and epigenetics is also demonstrated through the study of the Linaria vulgaris. The methylation of the Lcyc gene in the Linaria vulgaris causes an advantageous change in the phenotype, this behavior allows the plant to adapt to its environment and potential pollinators (Cubas et a., 1999).
6. Epigenetics allows for plasticity of sex traits: Sex traits and behaviors have evolved to improve likelihood of achieving a mate, and epigenetics has allowed animals to continue extravagance in order to achieve this goal as well as survive (Geary et al., 2012). 
7. Captive environment and limited mating selection impacts diversity of livestock: Agrigulture specialists will utilize epigenetics to enhance the environment and behaviors of animals as well as impact the evolution of these animals through future generations (Goddard et al., 2014), (Zeric, 2012), (Gonzalez-Recio, 2012).
   
8. Research demonstrates that mice can epigenetically pass down a particular fear through the mechanisms of epigenetics: In this way epigenetics is aiding in the survival behaviors of animals allowing them to have an evolutionary leg-up against competition and predators (Diaz et al., 2013).
9. Bees and ants rely on epigenetic changes to thrive and change behavioral castes for the good of their population. Bees are able to change between nurses and foragers, while ants are able to become a queen from a worker. All is due to epigenetic changes that result in a behavioral and physical change in phenotype which evolutionarily allows the species to survive and adapt rapidly (Herb et al., 2012), (Boasio et al., 2010).  

All images accessed on 25/05/15 and referenced from appearing top to bottom of blog:

http://s3-static-ak.buzzfed.com/static/2014-01/campaign_images/webdr06/3/12/24-next-level-bonkers-science-gifs-1-3249-1388768781-47_big.jpg

http://images.clipartpanda.com/parent-clipart-9cRR5M7Gi.gif

http://www.animateit.net/data/media/june2010/b26d5ab73f50.gif

References:

(2009) PBS.org/nova/sciencenow. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFsxVkuChdU

Bonasio, R., Zhang, G., Ye, C., Mutti, N. S., Fang, X., Qin, N., . . . Liebig, J. (2010). Genomic Comparison of the Ants Camponotus floridanus and Harpegnathos saltator. Science, 329(5995), 1068-1071. doi: 10.1126/science.1192428

Cubas, P., Vincent, C., & Coen, E. (1999). An epigenetic mutation responsible for natural variation in floral symmetry.Nature, 401(6749), 157-161. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v401/n6749/full/401157a0.html

Dias, B. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2013). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. Nat Neurosci, 17(1), 89-96. doi: 10.1038/nn.3594

Geary, D., Jašarević, E., Rosenfeld, C.,  (2012). Sexually Selected Traits: A Fundamental Framework for Studies on Behavioral Epigenetics. ILAR J,  53 (3-4), 253-269. doi: 10.1093/ilar.53.3-4.253

Goddard, M. E., & Whitelaw, E. (2014). The use of epigenetic phenomema for the improvement of sheep and cattle.Frontiers in Genetics, 5. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2014.00247

Gonzalez-Recio, O. (2012). Epigenetics: a new challenge in the post-genomic era of livestock. Frontiers in Genetics, 2. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2011.00106

Herb, B. R., Wolschin, F., Hansen, K. D., Aryee, M. J., Langmead, B., Irizarry, R., . . . Feinberg, A. P. (2012). Reversible switching between epigenetic states in honeybee behavioral subcastes. Nat Neurosci, 15(10), 1371-1373. doi: http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v15/n10/abs/nn.3218.html#supplementary-information

Miller, G. (2010). The Seductive Allure of Behavioral Epigenetics. Science Magazine, 329 (5987), 24-27. doi: 10.1126/science.329.5987.24

Shulha HP, Crisci JL, Reshetov D, Tushir JS, Cheung I, et al. (2012) Human-Specific Histone Methylation Signatures at Transcription Start Sites in Prefrontal Neurons. PLoS Biol 10(11): e1001427. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001427

Weaver IC, C. N., Champagne FA, D'Alessio AC, Sharma S, Seckl JR, Dymov S, Szyf M, Meaney MJ (2004). Epigenetic Programming by Maternal Behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7(8), 847-854. 

Zeng, J., Konopka, G., Hunt, B. G., Preuss, T. M., Geschwind, D., & Yi, S. V. (2012). Divergent Whole-Genome Methylation Maps of Human and Chimpanzee Brains Reveal Epigenetic Basis of Human Regulatory Evolution. American Journal of Human Genetics, 91(3), 455–465. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.07.024

Zeric, D. (2012). Importance of Epigenetics in Animal Breeding: Genomic Imprinting. Swedish University of Agricultural  Sciences. http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/3888/1/zeric_d_120221.pdf